Has Autumn Rice Been Found Again

Farming in China

Female tractor driver in Red china depicted in a 1964 affiche.

Mainland china primarily produces rice, wheat, potatoes, tomato, sorghum, peanuts, tea, millet, barley, cotton, oilseed, corn and soybeans.

History [edit]

The development of farming over the course of Cathay'south history has played a key function in supporting the growth of what is now the largest population in the world.

Archaeology [edit]

of stone tools past Professor Liu Li and others has shown that hunter-gatherers 23,000–xix,500 years ago basis wild plants with the same tools that would later be used for millet and rice.^[one]

Domesticated millet varieties Panicum miliaceum and Setaria italica may have originated in Northern China.^[2] Remains of domesticated millet accept been institute in northern China at Xinglonggou, Yuezhang, Dadiwan, Cishan, and several Peiligang sites. These sites comprehend a period over 7250-6050 BCE.^[3] The amount of domesticated millet eaten at these sites was proportionally quite low compared to other plants. At Xinglonggou, millet made upward just 15% of all constitute remains around 7200-6400 BCE; a ratio that changed to 99% by 2050-1550 BCE.^[iv] Experiments accept shown that millet requires very little homo intervention to grow, which means that obvious changes in the archaeological record that could demonstrate millet was being cultivated do not exist.^[3]

Excavations at Kuahuqiao, the earliest known Neolithic site in eastern China, have documented rice tillage 7,700 years agone.^[5] Approximately one-half of the plant remains belonged to domesticated japonica species, whilst the other half were wild types of rice. It is possible that the people at Kuahuqiao likewise cultivated the wild type.^[iii] Finds at sites of the Hemudu Culture (c. 5500-3300 BCE) in Yuyao and Banpo virtually Xi'an include millet and spade-similar tools made of stone and bone. Evidence of settled rice agronomics has been found at the Hemudu site of Tianluoshan (5000-4500 BCE), with rice becoming the courage of the agricultural economy by the Majiabang culture in southern Red china.^[6] According to the Records of the Thou Historian some female prisoners in historic times were given the punishment to be "grain pounders" (Chinese: 刑舂) every bit an alternative to more severe corporal penalisation like tattooing or cutting off a foot. Some scholars believe the iv or v twelvemonth limits on these hard labor sentences began with Emperor Wen'south legal reforms.^[7]

There is also a long tradition involving agriculture in Chinese mythology. In his volume Permanent Agriculture: Farmers of Forty Centuries (1911), Professor Franklin Hiram Male monarch described and extolled the values of the traditional farming practices of China.^[8]

Farming method improvements [edit]

Farming in China has always been very labor-intensive. However, throughout its history, diverse methods take been developed or imported that enabled greater farming production and efficiency. They likewise utilized the seed drill to assist improve on row farming.

During the Spring and Autumn menses (722–481 BC), 2 revolutionary improvements in farming technology took place. One was the employ of cast iron tools and beasts of brunt to pull plows, and the other was the large-scale harnessing of rivers and development of water conservation projects. The engineer Sunshu Ao of the 6th century BC and Ximen Bao of the 5th century BC are two of the oldest hydraulic engineers from China, and their works were focused upon improving irrigation systems.^[nine] These developments were widely spread during the ensuing Warring States period (403–221 BC), culminating in the enormous Du Jiang Yan Irrigation Organisation engineered by Li Bing past 256 BC for the State of Qin in ancient Sichuan.

For agricultural purposes the Chinese had invented the hydraulic-powered trip hammer by the 1st century BC, during the ancient Han dynasty (202 BC-220 Advertizing).^[ten] Although it found other purposes, its main function was to pound, decorticate, and polish grain that otherwise would have been washed manually. The Chinese besides innovated the square-pallet concatenation pump past the 1st century AD, powered by a waterwheel or oxen pulling on a organization of mechanical wheels.^[xi] Although the chain pump found use in public works of providing h2o for urban and palatial pipage systems,^[12] information technology was used largely to lift water from a lower to higher meridian in filling irrigation canals and channels for farmland.^[thirteen]

Chinese ploughs from Han times on fulfil all these weather of efficiency nicely, which is presumably why the standard Han turn team consisted of two animals only, and later teams ordinarily of a single animal, rather than the four, half dozen or eight draught animals common in Europe before the introduction of the curved mould-board and other new principles of pattern in the + 18th century. Though the mould-board plow first appeared in Europe in early medieval, if non in late Roman, times, pre-eighteenth century mould-boards were unremarkably wooden and direct (Fig. 59). The enormous labour involved in pulling such a clumsy construction necessitated large plow-teams, and this meant that large areas of state had to be reserved as pasture. In People's republic of china, where much less animal power was required, it was not necessary to maintain the mixed arable-pasture economy typical of Europe: fallows could be reduced and the arable area expanded, and a considerably larger population could be supported than on the same corporeality of land in Europe.^[14]

—Francesca Bray

During the Eastern Jin (317–420) and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589), the Silk Road and other international trade routes further spread farming technology throughout China. Political stability and a growing labor force led to economical growth, and people opened upwardly large areas of wasteland and built irrigation works for expanded agricultural utilize. Every bit state-utilize became more intensive and efficient, rice was grown twice a year and cattle began to be used for plowing and fertilization.

By the Tang dynasty (618–907), China had go a unified feudal agricultural social club again. Improvements in farming mechanism during this era included the moldboard plow and watermill. Later during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), cotton planting and weaving technology were extensively adopted and improved.

While around 750, 75% of Prc's population lived north of the river Yangtze, by 1250, 75% of the population lived south of the river. Such large-calibration internal migration was possible due to the introduction of quick-ripening strains of rice from Vietnam suitable for multi-cropping.^[15] This is also possibly the result of Northern People's republic of china falling to invaders. With the hardships that come up from conflict, many Chinese may take moved South to not starve.

The Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties had seen the ascent of collective help organizations betwixt farmers.^[xvi]

In 1909 U.s. Professor of Agronomics Franklin Hiram Rex made an extensive tour of Prc (equally well every bit Japan and briefly Korea) and he described gimmicky agricultural practices. He favourably described the farming of China as 'permanent agriculture' and his volume 'Farmers of Forty Centuries', published posthumously in 1911, has go an agricultural archetype and has been a favoured reference source for organic farming advocates. The book has inspired many community-supported agriculture farmers in China to deport ecological farming.^[17]

People'southward Republic of China [edit]

Development of farm production of Red china in 2015 US$ since 1961

Share of labour strength employed in agriculture in Red china since 1990

Post-obit the Chinese Communist Party's victory in the Chinese Ceremonious War, control of the farmlands was taken away from landlords and redistributed to the 300 one thousand thousand peasant farmers,^[18] including purges of landlords during the Land Reform Movement. In 1952, gradually consolidating its power following the civil war, the government began organizing the peasants into teams. Three years later, these teams were combined into producer cooperatives, enacting the socialist goal of collective country ownership. In the following year, 1956, the government formally took control of the land, further structuring the farmland into large government-operated collective farms.

In the 1958 "Great Leap Frontwards" campaign initiated by Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party Mao Zedong, land use was placed under closer government control in an effort to improve agricultural output. In particular, the 4 Pests campaign and mass eradication of sparrows had a directly negative impact on agronomics. Collectives were organized into communes, private food production was banned, and collective eating was required. Greater emphasis was too put on industrialization instead of agriculture. The farming inefficiencies created past this campaign led to the Great Chinese Dearth, resulting in the deaths of somewhere betwixt the government estimate of 14 1000000 to scholarly estimates of xx to 43 million.^[19] Although private plots of land were re-instated in 1962 due to this failure, communes remained the dominant rural unit of economic organization during the Cultural Revolution, with Mao championing the "Learn from Dazhai in agriculture" campaign. Tachai's semi-literate political party secretary Chen Yonggui was amongst those outmaneuvered by Deng Xiaoping later the death of Mao: from 1982 to 1985, the Dazhai-manner communes were gradually replaced by townships.

Beginning in 1978, as part of the Four Modernizations campaign, the Family Production Responsibility System was created, dismantling communes and giving agronomical production responsibility back to individual households. Households are now given crop quotas that they were required to provide to their collective unit in return for tools, typhoon animals, seeds, and other essentials. Households, which now charter state from their collectives, are free to use their farmland however they see fit as long as they come across these quotas. This freedom has given more than ability to individual families to run into their private needs. In addition to these structural changes, the Chinese regime as well engages in irrigation projects (such as the Three Gorges Dam), runs large state farms, and encourages mechanization and fertilizer use.^[xx]

By 1984, when nigh 99% of agricultural production teams had adopted the Family Production Responsibility System, the government began farther economical reforms, aimed primarily at liberalizing agricultural pricing and marketing. In 1984, the government replaced mandatory procurement with voluntary contracts between farmers and the authorities. Later, in 1993, the government abolished the 40-year-old grain rationing system, leading to more than 90 percent of all annual agricultural produce to be sold at market place-determined prices.

Since 1994, the government has instituted a number of policy changes aimed at limiting grain importation and increasing economic stability. Amid these policy changes was the artificial increase of grain prices to a higher place marketplace levels. This has led to increased grain product, while placing the heavy burden of maintaining these prices on the government. In 1995, the "Governor's Grain Pocketbook Responsibility System" was instituted, holding provincial governors responsible for balancing grain supply and need and stabilizing grain prices in their provinces. Afterward, in 1997, the "4 Separations and One Perfection" program was implemented to save some of the budgetary burdens placed on the regime by its grain policy.^[21]

Equally Red china continues to industrialize, vast swaths of agricultural state is being converted into industrial country. Farmers displaced by such urban expansion often become migrant labor for factories, only other farmers feel disenfranchised and cheated past the encroachment of industry and the growing disparity between urban and rural wealth and income.^[22]

The most contempo innovation in Chinese agriculture is a push into organic agronomics.^[23] This rapid cover of organic farming simultaneously serves multiple purposes, including food safety, health benefits, export opportunities, and, past providing price premiums for the produce of rural communities, the adoption of organics can aid stem the migration of rural workers to the cities.^[23] In the mid-1990s China became a net importer of grain, since its unsustainable practises of groundwater mining has effectively removed considerable land from productive agricultural use.^{[ citation needed ]}

Major agricultural products [edit]

Crop distribution [edit]

Although China'southward agronomical output is the largest in the world, only 10% of its full land surface area can be cultivated. Prc's arable land, which represents 10% of the full arable state in the world, supports over 20% of the world'south population.^[24] Of this approximately 1.4 million square kilometers of arable land, just about 1.2% (116,580 square kilometers) permanently supports crops and 525,800 foursquare kilometers are irrigated.^{[ citation needed ]} The state is divided into approximately 200 million households, with an boilerplate land resource allotment of but 0.65 hectares (1.half-dozen acres).

China'due south limited space for farming has been a problem throughout its history, leading to chronic food shortage and famine. While the product efficiency of farmland has grown over time, efforts to aggrandize to the west and the north take met with limited success, as such state is generally colder and drier than traditional farmlands to the due east. Since the 1950s, subcontract space has too been pressured past the increasing country needs of industry and cities.

Peri-urban agriculture [edit]

Bok choy-like greens grown in a square outside of Ezhou railway stations

Such increases in the sizes of cities, such every bit the administrative district of Beijing's increment from 4,822 km^two (i,862 sq mi) in 1956 to sixteen,808 km^two (half dozen,490 sq mi) in 1958, has led to the increased adoption of peri-urban agronomics. Such "suburban agriculture" led to more than 70% of non-staple food in Beijing, mainly consisting of vegetables and milk, to be produced past the city itself in the 1960s and 1970s. Recently, with relative food security in China, periurban agronomics has led to improvements in the quality of the nutrient available, as opposed to quantity. One of the more recent experiments in urban agriculture is the Modern Agricultural Scientific discipline Demonstration Park in Xiaotangshan.^[25]

Food crops [edit]

About 75% of Red china'due south cultivated surface area is used for nutrient crops. Rice is China's most important crop, raised on near 25% of the cultivated area. The majority of rice is grown s of the Huai River, in the Zhu Jiang delta, and in the Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan provinces.

Wheat is the second almost-prevalent grain crop, grown in about parts of the country merely especially on the North China Plain, the Wei and Fen River valleys on the Loess plateau, and in Jiangsu, Hubei, and Sichuan provinces. Corn and millet are grown in due north and northeast Mainland china, and oats are of import in Inner Mongolia and Tibet.

Other crops include sweet potatoes in the south, white potatoes in the north (Cathay is the largest producer of potatoes in the world), and various other fruits and vegetables. Tropical fruits are grown on Hainan Island, apples and pears are grown in northern Liaoning and Shandong.

Oil seeds are important in Chinese agriculture, supplying edible and industrial oils and forming a large share of agricultural exports. In Northward and Northeast China, Chinese soybeans are grown to be used in tofu and cooking oil. Cathay is also a leading producer of peanuts, which are grown in Shandong and Hebei provinces. Other oilseed crops are sesame seeds, sunflower seeds, rapeseed, and the seeds of the tung tree.

Citrus is a major cash crop in southern China, with product scattered along and due south of the Yangtze River valley. Mandarins are the virtually pop citrus in China, with roughly double the output of oranges.^[26]

Other important food crops for China include light-green and jasmine teas (popular amongst the Chinese population), black tea (as an export), sugarcane, and sugar beets. Tea plantations are located on the hillsides of the centre Yangtze Valley and in the southeast provinces of Fujian and Zhejiang. Sugarcane is grown in Guangdong and Sichuan, while sugar beets are raised in Heilongjiang province and on irrigated land in Inner Mongolia. Lotus is widely cultivated throughout southern Mainland china.^[27] ^[28]

Arabica coffee is grown in the southwestern province of Yunnan.^[29] Much smaller plantations as well exist in Hainan and Fujian.^[thirty]

Cobweb crops [edit]

Mainland china is the leading producer of cotton, which is grown throughout, simply peculiarly in the areas of the Northward Cathay Plain, the Yangtze river delta, the center Yangtze valley, and the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Other cobweb crops include ramie, flax, jute, and hemp. Sericulture, the do of silkworm raising, is also practiced in central and southern China.

Livestock [edit]

China has a large livestock population, with pigs and fowls being the most common. China's pig population and pork production mainly prevarication along the Yangtze River. In 2011, Sichuan province had 51 million pigs (11% of China's total supply).^[31] In rural western China, sheep, goats, and camels are raised by nomadic herders.^[32] In Tibet, yaks are raised equally a source of food, fuel, and shelter. Cattle, water buffalo, horses, mules, and donkeys are also raised in China, and dairy has recently been encouraged by the authorities, even though approximately 92.three% of the adult population is affected past some level of lactose intolerance.

As demand for gourmet foods grows, production of more exotic meats increases as well. Based on survey data from 684 Chinese turtle farms (less than half of the all 1,499 officially registered turtle farms in the year of the survey, 2002), they sold over 92,000 tons of turtles (around 128 1000000 animals) per year; this is thought to represent to the industrial total of over 300 million turtles per year.^[33]

Increased incomes and increased demand for meat, especially pork, has resulted in demand for improved breeds of livestock, breeding stock imported especially from the United States. Some of these breeds are adapted to manufactory farming.^[34]

Fishing [edit]

China accounts for virtually 1-third of the total fish production of the earth. Aquaculture, the convenance of fish in ponds and lakes, accounts for more than half of its output. The principal aquaculture-producing regions are close to urban markets in the centre and lower Yangtze valley and the Zhu Jiang delta.

Production [edit]

In its beginning fifty years, the People'south Democracy of Prc greatly increased agricultural production through organizational and technological improvements.

	Ingather ^[35]	1949 Output (tons)	1978 Output (tons)	1999 Output (tons)
1.	Grain	113,180,000	304,770,000	508,390,000
2.	Cotton	444,000	ii,167,000	3,831,000
3.	Oil-begetting crops	2,564,000	v,218,000	26,012,000
4.	Sugarcane	2,642,000	21,116,000	74,700,000
5.	Sugarbeet	191,000	2,702,000	8,640,000
6.	Flue-cured tobacco	43,000	1,052,000	2,185,000
vii.	Tea	41,000	268,000	676,000
viii.	Fruit	one,200,000	6,570,000	62,376,000
nine.	Meat	2,200,000	8,563,000	59,609,000
ten.	Aquatic products	450,000	iv,660,000	41,220,000

However, since 2000 the depletion of China's main aquifers has led to an overall decrease in grain production, turning China into a net importer. The trend of Chinese dependence on imported food is expected to advance as the h2o shortage worsens.^[36] Despite their potential, desalination plants find few customers because it is withal cheaper to over-utilize rivers, lakes and aquifers, even as these are depleted.^[37]

As of 2011, China was both the globe's largest producer and consumer of agricultural products.^[38] ^[39] Nonetheless, the researcher Lin Erda has stated a projected fall of peradventure 14% to 23% by 2050 due to h2o shortages and other impacts past climate modify; Red china has increased the budget for agriculture past 20% in 2009, and continues to back up energy efficiency measures, renewable engineering, and other efforts with investments, such as the over xxx% light-green component of the $586bn fiscal stimulus packet announced in November 2008.^[twoscore]

In 2018:^[41]

Information technology was the 2nd largest producer of maize (257.i one thousand thousand tons), 2d but to the USA;
It was the largest producer of rice (212.1 million tons);
It was the largest producer of wheat (131.4 million tons);
It was the 3rd largest producer of sugarcane (108 million tons), 2d only to Brazil and India;
It was the largest producer of potato (90.2 million tons);
It was the largest producer of watermelon (62.viii one thousand thousand tons);
It was the largest producer of tomatoes (61.5 million tons);
It was the largest producer of cucumber / pickles (56.ii million tons);
It was the largest producer of sweet spud (53.0 1000000 tons);
It was the largest producer of apple (39.2 million tons);
It was the largest producer of eggplant (34.1 1000000 tons);
It was the largest producer of cabbage (33.ane million tons);
Information technology was the largest producer of onion (24.7 million tons);
Information technology was the largest producer of spinach (23.8 million tons);
It was the largest producer of garlic (22.2 1000000 tons);
Information technology was the largest producer of light-green edible bean (xix.9 one thousand thousand tons);
It was the largest producer of tangerine (19.0 million tons);
It was the largest producer of carrots (17.9 million tons);
Information technology was the third largest producer of cotton (17.7 million tons), 2d simply to India and the Us;
Information technology was the largest producer of peanut (17.3 meg tons);
Information technology was the largest producer of pear (16.0 million tons);
It was the 4th largest producer of soy (14.one million tons), losing to the U.s.a., Brazil and Argentina;
Information technology was the largest producer of grape (13.3 1000000 tons);
Information technology was the 2nd largest producer of rapeseed (xiii.two million tons), 2nd simply to Canada;
It was the largest producer of pea (12.9 1000000 tons);
It was the largest producer of melon (12.vii one thousand thousand tons);
It was the eighth largest producer of sugar beet (12 million tons), which serves to produce carbohydrate and ethanol;
It was the 2nd largest producer of banana (xi.2 million tons), second only to India;
Information technology was the largest producer of cauliflower and broccoli (10.vi million tons);
It was the 2nd largest producer of orangish (9.ane 1000000 tons), second only to Brazil;
Information technology was the largest producer of pumpkin (8.one 1000000 tons);
Information technology was the largest producer of asparagus (vii.ix 1000000 tons);
It was the largest producer of plum (6.vii one thousand thousand tons);
It was the largest producer of mushroom and truffle (6.half dozen million tons);
Information technology was the largest producer of grapefruit (four.9 1000000 tons);
Information technology was the 15th largest producer of cassava (4.9 million tons);
Information technology was the 2nd largest producer of mango (including mangosteen and guava) (4.8 meg tons), second only to India;
Information technology was the largest producer of persimmon (three.0 million tons);
It was the largest producer of strawberry (2.9 million tons);
It was the largest producer of tea (2.vi million tons);
It produced 2.5 meg tons of sunflower seed;
Information technology was the tertiary largest producer of lemon (two.4 million tons), second just to India and Mexico;
It was the largest producer of tobacco (2.2 one thousand thousand tons);
Information technology was the 8th largest producer of sorghum (two.1 million tons);
It was the largest producer of kiwi (ii.0 one thousand thousand tons);
It was the largest producer of chestnut (ane.9 million tons);
Information technology produced ane.ix 1000000 tons of taro;
It produced i.8 million tons of fava beans;
Information technology was the 3rd largest producer of millet (1.5 million tons), 2d merely to India and Niger;
It was the 8th largest producer of pineapple (1.5 million tons);
It produced ane.4 1000000 tons of barley;
Information technology was the largest producer of buckwheat (1.i million tons);
It was the sixth largest producer of oats (i million tons);
Information technology was the quaternary largest producer of rye (1 million tons), second only to Germany, Poland and Russia;
It produced i million tons of tallow tree;

In improver to smaller productions of other agricultural products.^[41]

Challenges [edit]

Strawberry fields in Yuxi, Yunnan

Inefficiencies in the agricultural marketplace [edit]

Despite rapid growth in output, the Chinese agricultural sector even so faces several challenges. Farmers in several provinces, such as Shandong, Zhejiang, Anhui, Liaoning, and Xinjiang often have a difficult fourth dimension selling their agricultural products to customers due to a lack of information about current conditions.^[42]

Between the producing farmer in the countryside and the terminate-consumer in the cities at that place is a chain of intermediaries.^[42] Considering a lack of information flows through them, farmers notice it difficult to foresee the need for different types of fruits and vegetables. In social club to maximize their profits they, therefore, opt to produce those fruits and vegetables that created the highest revenues for farmers in the region in the previous year. If, however, most farmers do so, this causes the supply of fresh products to fluctuate essentially year on year. Relatively scarce products in one year are produced in excess the following year because of expected higher profit margins. The resulting excess supply, however, forces farmers to reduce their prices and sell at a loss. The scarce, acquirement creating products of one yr become the over-abundant, loss-making products in the post-obit, and vice versa.^[43]

Efficiency is farther dumb in the transportation of agricultural products from the farms to the actual markets. According to figures from the Commerce Department, upwards to 25% of fruits and vegetables rot before being sold, compared to around 5% in a typical developed land. Equally intermediaries cannot sell these rotten fruits they pay farmers less than they would if able to sell all or most of the fruits and vegetables. This reduces farmer's revenues although the problem is caused by post-production inefficiencies, which they are not themselves aware of during price negotiations with intermediaries.^[44]

These information and transportation problems highlight inefficiencies in the market mechanisms between farmers and end-consumers, impeding farmers from taking advantage of the fast development of the remainder of the Chinese economy. The resulting small profit margin does not allow them to invest in the necessary agricultural inputs (machinery, seeds, fertilizers, etc.) to raise their productivity and improve their standards of living, from which the whole of the Chinese economy would benefit. This in plow increases the exodus of people from the countryside to the cities, which already face urbanization bug.^[45]

In a oral communication in September 2020, General Secretarial assistant of the Chinese Communist Party Xi Jinping directed Red china'south scientists to enquiry seed farming. He noted that the state relies on imported seed and said that its scientists must aid remedy this situation.^[46]

International trade [edit]

Prc is the world's largest importer of soybeans and other nutrient crops,^[47] and is expected to get the top importer of farm products within the next decade.^[48] In a speech communication in September 2020, CCP leader Eleven Jinping lamented the country'due south reliance on imported seed.^[46]

While most years Red china's agronomical production is sufficient to feed the state, in downwards years, China has to import grain. Due to the shortage of bachelor farm land and an abundance of labor, it might make more sense to import land-extensive crops (such as wheat and rice) and to salvage China's scarce cropland for high-value consign products, such as fruits, nuts, or vegetables. In club to maintain grain independence and ensure food security, nevertheless, the Chinese government has enforced policies that encourage grain product at the expense of more-profitable crops. Despite heavy restrictions on ingather production, Cathay'due south agricultural exports have profoundly increased in recent years.^[49]

Governmental influence [edit]

1 important motivator of increased international merchandise was China's inclusion in the World Trade Organization (WTO) on December 11, 2001, leading to reduced or eliminated tariffs on much of China's agronomical exports. Due to the resulting opening of international markets to Chinese agronomics, by 2004 the value of China'southward agricultural exports exceeded $17.3 billion (US). Since China'southward inclusion in the WTO, its agricultural merchandise has non been liberalized to the aforementioned extent as its manufactured goods trade. Markets within Cathay are however relatively closed-off to foreign companies. Due to its large and growing population, information technology is speculated that if its agricultural markets were opened, Communist china would become a consequent net importer of nutrient, possibly destabilizing the world nutrient market. The barriers enforced by the Chinese government on grains are not transparent considering China'south land trading in grains is conducted through its Cereal, Oil, and Foodstuffs Importing and Exporting Corporation (COFCO).^[50]

Food safety [edit]

Excessive pesticide residues, depression food hygiene, unsafe additives, contamination with heavy metals and other contaminants and misuse of veterinary drugs have all led to trade restrictions with some nations such every bit Japan, the Us, and the European Union.^[51] These problems take also led to public outcry, such equally in the melamine-tainted domestic dog food scare and the carcinogenic-tainted seafood import restriction, leading to measures such as the "Communist china-free" label.^[52]

About 1 tenth of People's republic of china's farmland is contaminated with heavy metals, co-ordinate to the Ministry of Ecology Protection of the People'south Republic of China.^[53]

Organic food products [edit]

Mainland china has developed a Green Food program where produce is certified for low pesticide input.^[23] This has been articulated into Green food Class A and Course AA. This Green Food AA standard has been aligned with IFOAM international standards for organic farming and has formed the footing of the rapid expansion of organic agriculture in China.^[23]

China'southward organic nutrient product has experienced a rapid expansion in the 2010s, largely attributed to the booming domestic market due to the heightened food safety problem. In many cases, organic food production is organized by organic food companies leasing land from small calibration farmers. Farmers' cooperatives and contract farming are as well found to be common organizational structures of organic farming in China. The Chinese authorities has provided various policy and financial supports for the evolution of the organic sector. In recent years, not-certified organic production in diverse forms such as permaculture and natural farming is besides emerging in Red china, frequently initiated by entrepreneurs or civil guild organizations.^[54]

Come across too [edit]

History of China
History of agriculture
Population history of China
History of canals in China
Lettuce production in Mainland china
Red china Green Nutrient Development Middle
Pinnacle water#China
Wang Zhen (official)
Franklin Hiram King
Land use in the People'south Republic of China
Aquaculture in China
Women in agriculture in Cathay

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

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^ Needham, Pt. 3, p. 271.
^ Needham, Pt. two, p. 184.
^ Needham, Pt. 2, pp. 89, 110.
^ Needham, Pt. 2, p. 33.
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^ Bray 1984, p. 178.
^ Angus Maddison; Organization for Economic Co-performance and Development. Development Centre (September 21, 2006). The world economy. Evolution Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Evolution. pp. 20–. ISBN978-92-64-02261-four . Retrieved February xiv, 2012.
^ Community Evolution in Historical Perspectives: Tianjin from the Qing to the People's Republic of People's republic of china. 2008. pp. 78–. ISBN978-0-549-67543-three.
^ Organic Food and Farming in China: Top-down and Lesser-up Ecological Initiatives. Routledge. 2018. ISBN978-1-13-857300-0.
^ The Dragon and the Elephant: Agricultural and Rural Reforms in China and Republic of india Edited by Ashok Gulati and Shenggen Fan (2007), Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 367
^ Peng Xizhe (彭希哲), "Demographic Consequences of the Great Bound Forrard in Cathay's Provinces," Population and Development Review 13, no. iv (1987), 639–70.
For a summary of other estimates, please refer to this link
^ OECD Review of Agronomical Policies – China. Oecd.org. Retrieved on 2012-02-14.
^ Disquisitional Choices for China's Agricultural Policy. Ifpri.org (2002-12-20). Retrieved on 2012-02-14.
^ Louisa Lim The Stop of Agriculture in China. NPR.org. May 17, 2006. Retrieved on 2012-02-14.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Paull, J.,China's Organic Revolution, Periodical of Organic Systems, 2(1) ane–11, 2007.
^ "People's republic of china - Agriculture, forestry, and fishing". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved July 23, 2020.
^ Jianming, Cai (Apr 1, 2003). "Periurban Agriculture Evolution in China" (PDF). Urban Agriculture Magazine. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 27, 2007. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
^ Puette, Loren. "ChinaAg: Citrus Product". Archived from the original on Oct 24, 2013. Retrieved October 30, 2013.
^ Guo H.B. (2008). "Cultivation of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. ssp. nucifera) and its utilization in China". Genetic Resource and Ingather Evolution. 56 (3): 323–330. doi:10.1007/s10722-008-9366-2. S2CID 19718393.
^ Huang Hongwen (1987). "Lotus of People's republic of china". Auburn Academy Lotus Project. Archived from the original on October 5, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2008.
^ Terazono, Emiko (3 November 2014) "Chinese coffee merchandise full of beans", The Fiscal Times, folio 17, Companies and markets, a similar commodity is bachelor on the Net with a subscription at [one], Accessed seven November 2014
^ Yunnan java
^ Puette, Loren. "ChinaAg: Livestock (including Milk & Honey)". Archived from the original on October 24, 2013. Retrieved October 30, 2013.
^ thirteen-twenty Number of Livestock. stats.gov.cn
^ Shi, Haitao; Parham, James F; Fan, Zhiyong; Hong, Meiling; Yin, Feng (2008). "Evidence for the massive scale of turtle farming in Cathay". Oryx. 42: 147–150. doi:10.1017/S0030605308000562.
^ "From the U.S., a Time to come Supply of Livestock for Cathay". The New York Times. Reuters. April twenty, 2012. Retrieved April 21, 2012.
^ Beijing Official Website International Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Car. Ebeijing.gov.cn. Retrieved on 2012-02-14.
^ Aquifer depletion. Eoearth.org. Retrieved on 2012-02-14.
^ Watts, Jonathan "Can the sea solve China's water crisis?" guardian.co.u.k., 24 January 2011.
^ ITC Study: China'southward Agricultural Trade: Competitive Conditions and Effects on U.S. Exports; March 22, 2011. Usitc.gov (2011-03-22). Retrieved on 2012-02-14.
^ China Archived 2011-01-09 at the Wayback Automobile. thehandthatfeedsus.org
^ Watts, Jonathan. "Cathay to plough extra 20% into agricultural output among fears that climate change volition spark food crisis." Guardian News, 5 March 2009.
^ ^a ^b China production in 2018, by FAO
^ ^a ^b 蔬菜流通环节将免征增值税 Archived 2013-02-10 at archive.today. 2011-12-28 (dead link)
^ 追踪菜市"跷跷板"：缘何"卖菜难、买菜贵""+pindao+"_中国网络电视台 Archived March 26, 2012, at the Wayback Motorcar. Nongjiale.cntv.cn (2011-05-09). Retrieved on 2012-02-14.
^ [Commentary: cleft agricultural products "difficulty in selling" buy expensive "ills | Within China]. February xiv, 2012. Retrieved on 2012-02-xiv.^{[ dead link ]}
^ [Comments: The primal to eradicate the problem of poor sales of agronomical products and farmers by government - Finance News]. Agile-news.com (2011-11-xviii). Retrieved on 2012-02-14.^{[ dead link ]}
^ ^a ^b Zhen, Liu (September xiii, 2020). "Xi Jinping calls on scientific discipline to solve the big problems choking China". South People's republic of china Morning Post . Retrieved October 28, 2021. He said that some of the main areas of research should exist to overcome the agricultural sector's reliance on imported seed...
^ Mainland china Drives Global Soybean Demand Archived January 24, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
^ "China to become world's top farm products importer: researcher." Reuters, 6 November 2011.
^ Argument – Trends in Agronomical Policy Archived 2007-04-17 at the Wayback Machine. International Institute for Practical Systems Analysis.
^ Colin A. Carter and Xianghong Li Economic Reform and the Changing: Blueprint of Red china'due south Agricultural Trade. Section of Agricultural and Resource Economic science, University of California Davis (July 1999)
^ Fengxia Dong and Helen H. Jensen Choices Article – Challenges for China's Agricultural Exports: Compliance with Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. Choices Magazine. 1st Quarter 2007, Vol. 22(1). Retrieved on 2012-02-xiv.
^ "The new 'China-free' label". Chicago Tribune. July 9, 2007.
^ "Heavy metals pollute a 10th of Cathay'southward farmland-study." Reuters, vi November 2011.
^ Scott, Steffanie; Si, Zhenzhong; Schumilas, Theresa and Chen, Aijuan. (2018). Organic Food and Farming in People's republic of china: Tiptop-downwards and Lesser-upward Ecological Initiatives New York: Routledge

Sources [edit]

Books

Bray, Francesca (1984), Scientific discipline and Civilization in China half-dozen
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Book 4, Physics and Physical Engineering, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
Scott, Steffanie et al. (2018). Organic Nutrient and Farming in China: Top-downwardly and Bottom-upward Ecological Initiatives. New York: Routledge.